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A short primer

This note collects the definitions implemented in qjax and their q → 1 limits. Throughout, \(q \in \mathbf{R}\) is the entropic index; q = 1 recovers ordinary Boltzmann–Gibbs statistics.

1. Deformed logarithm and exponential

The two foundational maps are

\[ \ln_q(x) = \frac{x^{1-q} - 1}{1 - q}, \qquad \exp_q(x) = \big[1 + (1-q)\,x\big]_+^{\frac{1}{1-q}}, \]

where \([\cdot]_+ = \max(\cdot, 0)\) enforces the Tsallis cut-off. They are mutual inverses and satisfy \(\ln_q \to \ln\), \(\exp_q \to \exp\) as \(q \to 1\).

qjax evaluates both with the double-where trick: the indeterminate \(0/0\) at \(q = 1\) is replaced by the analytic limit, and the unused branch is fed a sanitized argument so that gradients stay finite everywhere, including exactly at \(q = 1\).

q-algebra

The deformed logarithm turns products into a deformed sum, and the deformed exponential turns sums into a deformed product:

\[ a \oplus_q b = a + b + (1-q)\,ab, \qquad a \otimes_q b = \big[a^{1-q} + b^{1-q} - 1\big]_+^{\frac{1}{1-q}}. \]

These give q_add/q_diff and q_prod/q_div. They obey \(\ln_q(xy) = \ln_q x \oplus_q \ln_q y\) and \(\exp_q(x+y) = \exp_q x \otimes_q \exp_q y\).

2. Tsallis entropy and divergences

The Tsallis entropy of a distribution \(p\) is

\[ S_q(p) = \frac{1 - \sum_i p_i^{\,q}}{q - 1} \;\xrightarrow{q \to 1}\; -\sum_i p_i \ln p_i . \]

It is concave, non-negative for probability vectors, and maximized by the uniform distribution. The associated relative entropy (q-divergence) is

\[ D_q(p \,\|\, r) = \frac{\sum_i p_i^{\,q} r_i^{1-q} - 1}{q - 1} \;\xrightarrow{q \to 1}\; \mathrm{KL}(p \,\|\, r), \]

and the cross-entropy used as a classification loss is \(H_q(y, p) = -\sum_i y_i \ln_q p_i\).

3. The q-Gaussian

Maximizing \(S_q\) under a fixed second moment yields the q-Gaussian:

\[ p(x) = \frac{\sqrt{\beta}}{C_q}\,\exp_q\!\big(-\beta x^2\big). \]
  • \(q < 1\): compact support.
  • \(q = 1\): the ordinary Gaussian, \(C_1 = \sqrt{\pi}\).
  • \(1 < q < 3\): heavy (power-law) tails; for \(q = 2\) this is the Cauchy distribution, and in general it is a rescaled Student-\(t\) with \(\nu = (3-q)/(q-1)\) degrees of freedom.

The variance is finite only for \(q < 5/3\), where \(\operatorname{Var} = 1/\big((5 - 3q)\,\beta\big)\). qjax.sample exploits the Student-\(t\) relationship, \(X = T_\nu / \sqrt{(3-q)\beta}\), which reproduces this variance exactly (supported for \(1 \le q < 3\)).

4. Tsallis entmax (q-deformed softmax)

Regularizing the maximum-score problem with Tsallis entropy,

\[ \mathrm{entmax}_q(z) = \arg\max_{p \in \Delta}\; \langle p, z \rangle + S_q^{T}(p), \]

gives a probability map with the closed form \(p_i = \big[(q-1) z_i - \tau\big]_+^{1/(q-1)}\), where \(\tau\) enforces \(\sum_i p_i = 1\). Then:

  • \(q = 1\) → softmax (dense),
  • \(q = 2\) → sparsemax (sparse; many coordinates are exactly zero),
  • intermediate \(q\) → a tunable trade-off between smoothness and sparsity.

qjax solves for \(\tau\) by bisection on the tight bracket \([(q-1)\max_i z_i - 1,\; (q-1)\max_i z_i]\), which is fully compatible with jit, grad, and vmap.

References

  • C. Tsallis, Introduction to Nonextensive Statistical Mechanics, Springer, 2009.
  • W. Thistleton, J. Marsh, K. Nelson, C. Tsallis, "Generalized Box–Müller method for generating q-Gaussian random deviates", IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory, 2007.
  • B. Peters, V. Niculae, A. Martins, "Sparse Sequence-to-Sequence Models" (entmax), ACL, 2019.